History II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History II - Essay ExampleJapanese targeted Pearl agree and attacked Pearl Harbor. Pearl Harbor is located on the west of Honolulu on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. It is under the command of United States Pacific Fleet. Japanese army attacked the Pearl Harbor on the seventh of December 1941. The impact of this attack was massive and began World War II. In the past the Pearl Harbor contained a shallow entrance and it was impossible for the gravid ships to enter the harbor (Hakim 93). The United States pacific fleet was previously located at the San Diego. Then President Franklin D. Roosevelt relocated it and sent it to the Hawaii (Hakim 149). The American usurpation in the Hawaii made changes to the harbor and the rules related to it. The main motive of making of Pearl Harbor as narrated by United State is to value the sailor and other men which are related to whaling industry (Hakim 152). It was decided to make pearl harbor a duty free harbor to adjoin the trade in the vicinity. B y the start of the 1900 to 1908 the American Navy expanded and improved the services (Hakim 153). On the day of 7th December 1941 Japanese obligate a surprise military attack on the United States Navy at the Pearl Harbor. According to Japanese the imposed military action is to bar United States Navy to interfere in the Japanese invasion to the other parts of the world (Hoyt 104). The Japanese air strike nearly crushed some(prenominal) of the United States naval ships.

Globalisation on Service Economies in the Uk Essay Example for Free

Globalisation on Service Economies in the Uk EssayMacKinnon amp Cumbers (2011) defined globalisation as the join ond connections in flows of goods, serve, money, teaching and people across national and continental borders. . The globalisation put to give way may be decomposed into constituent processes in order to explain the impacts it has had, which will be discussed to a greater extent later.In turn, a service economy is one, or part of one, that is based on alternate in services. A service is characterised by its intangibility, inseparability (the simultaneous exertion and consumption of services), heterogeneity and perishability over time and space (Regan 1963 Rathmell 1966 Shostack 1977 Zeithaml et al 1985, cited in Wolak 1998). Alternatively, services are economic activities which hire no direct involvement with agriculture, mining, or manufacturing (OECD 2000).Both macro and meso-scale impacts will be examined, starting with the macro how the service sector as a whole has changed and how globalisation may have basically changed the concept of what a service might be. Inequality as a result of globalisation will then be discussed with particular reference to the North-South divide, in the beginning examining market structure changes in terms of levels of competition in the service sector. Finally, meso-scale impacts will be considered, emphasising lucre differences in the UKs service sector.Figure 1 helping share of employment in the UK by sector, 1980-2008 Source ONS 2009, cited in Faulconbridge 2010 The most pro piece impact has been the expansion of the service sector since the onset of globalisation in the mid-20th century. Figure 1 shows the increase in service employment from 1980 2008. pass on to this, the %GDP generated by the service sector in this same period rose by approximately 20% (OECD 1996, cited in Julius amp Butler 1998), closely mirroring the data in figure 1.Explanation for this can be found in the international variableness of apprehend (IDL) that has occurred, in which agriculture and manufacturing have moved abroad to areas that have a comparative advantage over the UK in these sectors. Bryson (2008) referred to this process as the first global shift. The result is, as Figure 1 shows, that as agriculture and manufacturing decline in the UK, services fill the gap that they have left behind. But what led to the first global shift?Offshoring, the act of transferring (predominantly lower- experienced) operations to least-cost locations abroad, is a relatively new concept which has occurred with globalisation (Coe et al 2007). In particular, the rise of Transnational Corporations (TNCs) that are involved with multiple economic sectors, has created a pronounced IDL with eastern hemisphere Asia as a dominant choice of location for outsourcing and offshoring. An model of this is Primark Ltd, a subsidiary of Associated British Foods plc.Primarks retail stores -the service part of its operatio ns- are predominantly in the UK, just now it sources its products (manufacturing that would otherwise be done in the UK) from East Asia (Primark 2011). This split encapsulates one way in which services in the UK have grown at the expense of other sectors. Another story for the expansion is the ease of the UK economy. As globalisation took hold, the view that free mass was the most efficient way to trade became dominant, a philosophy termed neoliberalism (Peet et al 2011).The result was the formation of trade blocs and international organisations, for example the development of the European Union into what it is today. Flows of capital, comprehend and goods amongst constituents of the EU are uninhibited by tariffs and quotas, leading to a disproportionate increase of trade in services between the UK and Europe as the costs of trade fell. Evidence for how liberalism has worked is found in the Big Bang in London. In 1986 the UK government attempted the most rapid, and most compre hensive regulatory relaxation ever attempted by an exchange (Clemons amp Weber 1990 233).By abolishing trade rilievorictions such as the minimum scale for commissions and opening the exchange to outsiders, deregulation made the City more attractive as a marketplace, thus recover its competitive advantage which it had lost to other cities such as New York (Clemons amp Weber 1990). But as Londons capital-intensive sector grew in size and scale, so did the whole service sector. Wages were pushed upwardly and created a mood of optimism (The Economist 2011), increasing the demand for lower-paid services such as cleaning, which are vital for a city to function (Sokol 2011).As well as this, knowledge-based services such as accountancy or stock broking in addition flourished due to the increased chroma of trade. Globalisation, more specifically the spread of technology, has also changed the fundamentals of a service. The earlier definition of service comes from literature from the mid -to-late 20th century, but more recently services have begun to transcend the characteristics of being inseparable and perishable, allowed by technological advancements (OECD, 2000).An example of this can be found by examining the relatively new concept of earnings search engines it is a service produced at one point in time, yet it is available for use at almost any point in time and space, and by virtually unlimited amounts of people. Through technology, a whole host of different types of services have arisen, contributing to the expansion of the service sector. ace particular new type of service is a business service (BS).Shown in figure 1, the increase in employment in BSs since 1980 is due to firms externalising and outsourcing work (Faulconbridge 2010), for example employing an accountant from a specialist accountancy firm rather than one in-house. Externalisation can be explained by the concept of the spacial division of expertise (Bryson amp Rusten 2006, cited in Daniels et al 2008), which exploits the theory of comparative advantage for knowledge and expertise, at a meso-scale. As such, the demand for BSs has increased, pushing forward BSs blow in the UK economy.Another impact is the widening of the North-South divide in England, observed at least as early as 1988 (Green 1988), during the Thatcher governments implementation of neoliberalistic policies. Evidence for this is found in much literature (Martin, 2010 cut et al 2010 Mackinnon amp Cumbers, 2011 Bryson, 2008), arguing that the spatial shift to services in the UK has been uneven growth in knowledge and capital intensive services have been concentrated in the South-East and London, whilst labour-intensive (and therefore likely to be lower-paid) services developed in the rest of the UK, in particular the North.This spatial inequality of the UK service economy can be attributed to a number of globalisation factors, but one of importance was the already-established spatial division of expertis e between London and the rest of the UK. London had been the capital of the workshop of the world, thus established as a centre of knowledge, so as global markets became more integrated, and with events such as the Big Bang, the size and scale at which Londons knowledge economy operated increased disproportionately relative to the rest of the UKs.Further to this, the divide is exacerbated by exposure to world market forces that results from liberalisation. The financial crisis of 2007 which started in the USA caused the collapse of Northern Rock, RBS, and HBOS, major banks whose headquarters were based in Newcastle and Edinburgh. French et al (2010) argued that their fates signalled the end of Edinburgh and Newcastle as regional financial centres, thus further eroding the spatial equality of types of services in the UK. Indeed, Newcastle is increasingly being know as being a location of choice for outsourcing call centres (Richardson et al 2000).Exposure to world markets was mention ed when discussing spatial inequality caused by globalisation. But exposure has also meant an increased level of competition in the service sector as TNCs expand their operations. An example of this has been the inward foreign investment in the supermarket industry by firms such as Aldi since 1989, creating competition and adversely changing the market structure from the view of domestic firms. Aldi hoped to create 1500 new jobs from 2008-2013 (Wallop 2008), implying that inward foreign investment has brought affirmatory impacts for service sector employment.On the other hand there are some service industries for which increased competition has had very few positive impacts, notably the coastal tourism industry. Blackpools local economy is based heavily upon services related to tourism, but with the advancement of travel technology exposing this market to international competition, the tourism sector has declined considerably in recent years (Singleton 2009) along with its related industries. Figure 2 Index of rise in Gross Weekly strong Earnings for full-time males 1978 2008 Source Lansley (2009)Inequality can also be found at a meso-scale, in particular, the increase in the difference between the highest paid and lowest paid workers. Figure 2 shows that the rate of increase at the 90th percentile in the male profit distribution has been farthest higher than that at the 10th percentile. Although figure 2 does not isolate service wages from other wages, this uphill inequality is still significant as services made up almost 90% of the UK economy in 2008 (figure 1). Van Reenen amp Bell (2010) showed that the increase in the top end of the wage distribution has been mostly in financial services.Much recent media coverage has indeed focussed on high bankers bonuses. The causes of this may be partially explained with by theories which do not fit in the context of globalisation, for example the decline of trade unions being responsible for lowering wages at t he bottom of the wage distribution (Van Reenen amp Bell 2010). However, in a globalisation context, offshoring plays a major role. Offshoring, as explained before, moves lower-skilled jobs to least-cost locations. This means that domestic labour supply is now competing with labour supply abroad. If labour can be supplied abroad for cheaper, the domestic price of labour (i. . UK wages) is depressed, thus explaining the low rate at which low-skilled wages are rising in the context of higher-skilled wages. Alternatively, domestic demand for unskilled labour has fallen, resulting in the lowering of unskilled wages (Slaughter amp Swagel 1997) Furthermore, influxes of migrants, particularly from the EU, have contributed to the impacts on the labour market. Whilst skilled migrants help to tackle the UK skills shortage, unskilled migrants provide excess labour market supply lowering unskilled wages and raising unemployment figures.An alternative explanation is the migrant division of labour (Wills et al 2010), where foreign-born workers are more likely to take lower-paid jobs in the UK because the wage is still higher than what they might go bad paid in their home country, so driving down wages of lower-paid jobs in general. At the other end of the scale, the highest-skilled wages are being pushed upwards disproportionately because as global markets become more integrated, the rate of increase in global demand for skilled labour outstrips that of the global supply of skilled labour.Evidence for the concept of demand outstripping supply comes from Richardson (2009, p. 326) even in times of relatively high unemployment, employers frequently cite skills shortages as one of the business difficulties that they face. In conclusion, explanations of impacts of globalisation on UK services tend to be constituent processes of globalisation which are inextricably linked the exposure to world markets due to trade liberalisation, offshoring, technology, and migration, but the im pacts they cause vary greatly.Explanations may also rely on economic theory, for example, the impacts on the labour market. Exposure to world market forces, such as the authentic Eurozone crisis, may mean Londons position within the UK is compromised like Newcastles and Edinburghs was. Additionally, as shown by the contrast between supermarkets and tourism in the UK, impacts and their explanations are industry-specific. However, it must be completed that globalisation offers only partial explanation of the impacts discussed.Politics, economics, sociology as well as wider geography play a fundamental role in particular, UK governments have contend a vastly important role in shaping outcomes of globalisation.

Counselling Theories Essay Example for Free

Counselling Theories Essay1.Explain the concept of personality versus nurture, using yourself as a case study to dilate the possibility.The concept of nature versus nurture is that humanity behaviour is influenced by genetic information inherited from our parents and also by environmental and social influences. My appearance much(prenominal) as short sightedness and pigmentation (freckles) I inherited from my parents. This means like my father I must wear glasses to drive and many other aspects of my daily life. Being a womanhood this heightens my social awareness as how others perceive me. Society dictates the body beautiful. Magazines, Bill-boards, TV and newspapers constantly suggest the need to have a perfect complexion. This influences how I perceive myself and makes me feel I must wear makeup to cover up such blemishes to appear more delicious and feel good close myself. Thus this influences my behaviour in everyday life as I feel my appearance determines my accepta nce by others.2.Identify matchless strength and one failing of the nature versus nurture concept in congeneric to misgiving human nurture and individual behaviour. One strength of the nature versus nurture concept in relation to understanding human exploitation and individual behaviour is the ability to explain addiction to smoking, drinking and narcotics. Children visualize their family and friends behaviour as sociall(a)y acceptable and so exhibit these behaviours with little question. This often leads to entrenched social behaviour. This suggests that our early experiences can affect our perspective later in adulthood.One weakness of the nature versus nurture concept in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour is that if someones behaviour is solely determined by their genes then to what extent are people in control of their lives. For instance people suffering from ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) have the same set of genes tho depending on th eir family, social or cultural upbringing may respond differently to the same situation.3.Describe Freuds concept of the ego, id and superego. Explain how the ego,id and superego interact. Use an example from your deliver experience.Id Describes the biological or instinctive response. This is our original personality we are born with and controls responses in the early stage of life.Ego In this second developmental stage, compromises in instinctive responses to environmental circumstances begin to develop. The ego mediates with the id by considering the rules of the real world and the consequences of actions taken in that world.Superego This is that part of our psyche that determines how we think we should react in a given situation. This is the development of morals, what is right and what is wrong. It is a further development of control over the id response. An example from my own experience is say when I see a piece of legal profession on display. My id tells me I want to eat t he piece of cake, my ego says are you really that hungry. My superego rationalises the situation and asks if I eat the cake unnecessarily, a manageable consequence is I will put on weight and so is this the right thing to do? 4.Identify one strength and one weakness of Freuds concept of the ego, id and superego in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour.One advantage of Freuds concept of the ego, id and superego in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour is that it gives a good overall description of development of the human psyche. It recognises the development of personality and physical development stages. It demonstrates the interplay or lack of between these different aspects of the psychological process and how different outcomes can occur as a consequence of this balance. One weakness of Sigmund Freuds concept of the ego, id and superego in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour is that n ot each may be equally well developed. This commix of psyche occurs at different rates for each individual. This can lead to social consequences where individuals will be treated differently causing a rafter in the future development of the ego and superego.5. Describe Jean Piagets four stages of cognitive development and provide an example from your own experience to illustrate the theory.Sensorimotor (Birth 18 months) During this period the baby begins torecognise the world or so them and so develops refined eye movement, depth vision, and later as they begin to look for further learn to crawl and then walk. They start to use simple language mum, dad and other single word responses. Preoperational (18 months to 6 years) hither the child increases their vocabulary and recognise some simple symbols and how to deal with certain basic situations. They can understand those near to them and begin to categorise the world around them. Concrete operational (6 to 12 years) At this point language skills increase but are still tied to the real world. The ability to reason increases in seeking to understand the world around them.Formal operational (12 years and over) About this point the child begins to look abstract or hypothetical situations. thither is an attempt to organise thoughts and situations into a logical ordering. From my own experience while I cannot remember the first two stages but I have seen them in my childrens growing up. At the age of 12 my daughter started to explore cooking for herself at first making cakes and more complicated meals. She started to ask such questions regarding instructions on packet mixes before progressing to more complicated cooking such as a bacon, tomato and onion omelette. More recently she has started to explore more complex issues and why people do what they do.6.Identify one strength and one weakness of Piagets stages of cognitive development in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour.Piage ts stages of cognitive development demonstrate an important connection between physical development and personality stages. A condemnation levelled at Piaget however was that he used his own children and others from a well educated and high socio-economic background. This selection is thus not fully representative of all society. Further children from different environment and cultural backgrounds may mature differently. Thus the age classification of the different stages may be much wider with some children exploitation at an earlier age and some later.7.List Eriksons eight psychosocial stages of development. Which stage do you see yourself in and why?(1)Oral sensory (0 1 year)(2)Muscular anal (2 3 years)(3)Locomotor-genital (3 5 years)(4)Latency (6 years puberty)(5)Adolescence (12 18 years)(6)Early adulthood (18 35 years)(7)Middle adulthood (35 60 years)(8)Mature adult (60+ years)Im at stage 7 according to Eriksons psychosocial stages of development. I am 40 years old, I h ave a family, a career and have organized as much as is possible my future life which now includes further education.8.Identify one strength and one weakness of Eriksons stages of development in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour.A strength of Eriksons stages of development in relation to understanding human development and individual behaviour is that it places greater stress in the nature versus nurture debate for the need for both concepts. Further this description is placed across an entire lifespan of a human being. A criticism, however, is that this theory describes the developmental process rather than explaining it.

World Economics assignment Essay Example for Free

humanity Economics assignment EssayIntroductionIn this continue, it impart introduce the knowledge base Economy. Main focus is the key feature of the global economic environment. The core economic issues that are focused on in this report are mountain, foreign rightments, exchange paces and economies undergoing change.ProcedureTo gather the required information to produce this report, extensive usage of the internet, various search engines and university library to render global economics theory and current affairs. abridgment on Element 1Firstly, international flock maturationd word-wide output. International business deal activities have fetch and explore the comparative advantages of a country, meanwhile, boost the professionalism of industries, higher cost-efficient because of this. If the world-wide output is enhanced and comparative advantages are well-exerted, producers can obtain benefits of economies of scale, accordingly, the cost will accrue and profit as cend.Secondly, it provides greater range of commodities for consumers and more choice. Customers coming from varied counties could buy commodities which are not produced domestically by the means of international trade. It contributes to enlarging purchasing market. Since, no guinea pig the similar types of products or goods that not are able produced in domestic area, they could be got through international trade.Additionally, world trade has made an overall increase in standard of living. Specifically, a host of job vacancies offered by muti-national companies help solving the employment problem, then corporation taxation and individual revenue are elevated. Consequently, increased tax will be invested to welfare and infrastructure system.Analysis on Element 2 correspond to wikipedia, Free trade is a system of trade policy that al low gears traders to act and or transact without interference from political relation. harmonise to the law of comparative advantage the policy per mits trading partners mutual gains from trade of goods and improvements.(1)According to wikipedia, The Latin American Free look at Association (LAFTA) was created in the 1960 Treaty of Montevideo by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. The signatories hoped to create a common market in Latin America and offered tariff rebates among member nations. LAFTA came into effect on January 2, 1962.When the trade association commenced it had seven members and its main goal was to eliminate all duties and restrictions on the volume of their trade within a twelve year period. By the late 1960s the area of LAFTA had a population of 220 million and produced about $90 one million million of goods and service annually. By the same time it had an average per capita gross national product of $440. The goal of the LAFTA is the creation of a free trade zone in Latin America. It should foster mutual regional trade among the member states, as well as with the U.S. and the Eu ropean Union.(2)Analysis on Element 3According to wikipedia, In economics, principle of absolute advantage refers to the ability of a caller (an individual, or degenerate, or country) to produce more of a good or service than competitors, using the same amount of resources. Adam Smith first described the principle of absolute advantage in the context of international trade, using job as the only input(3). For instance, the capital market of UK is absolute advantage when comparing to the developing countries.According to wikipedia, The law of comparative advantage refers to the ability of a party (an individual, a firm, or a country) to produce a particular good or service at a lower opportunity cost than some other party. It is the ability to produce a product with the highest relative efficiency given all the other products that could be produced(4). For instance, during the end of 19 century and beginning of 20 century, textile industry of UK developed well. However, in the mi ddle and end of 21 century, Chinas textile industry became a comparative advantage because of enhanced efficient by means of adopting unsanded product technologies.Analysis on Element 4According to wikipedia, Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade amidst states, through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other government regulations designed to discourage imports, and prevent foreign take-over of domestic markets and companies(5). Its a practice of rule imports and exportations with the purpose of shielding domestic industries from foreign competition. Governments adopt protectionism in order to help the country become self-sufficient, to protect new industries, or as a bargaining tool.In terms of tariff which was applied in protectionism, there are two examples. On September of 2010, Chinese government enforce new import duties ranging from 50.3 to 105.4 percent on US chicken lasting for five years, since a investig ation found that US chicken was being sold at low prices a process called dumping(6). Another instance is, according to the webpage, on November of 2009, Brazil would raise cane over U.S. ethanol tariff. The reason for that is Brazil lolly producers say sugar-based fuel is more environmentally sound than electricity or corn ethanol for as an alternative for powering cars(7).Analysis on Element 5Trade barriers are constraints that tend to hinder the motivation to engage in the importing or exporting of goods(8). There are two types of barriers that a government can employ, which are Tariff barriers and Non-Tariff barriers. According to the student guide, Tariffs are taxes or usage duties placed on foreign products to artificially raise their prices and this hopefully, suppresses domestic ask for them.(9) According to wikipedia, Non-tariff barriers to trade (NTBs) are trade barriers that restrict imports but are not in the usual form of a tariff.(10) it can take many an(prenominal ) forms, including quotas, embargoes, exchange controls, import deposits, voluntary export restrains, product standard procedures, subsidies and etc.There are two instances that indicate how tariff barriers influence the global trade. According to the webpage, On September of 2010, chinas commerce ministry announced that it would impose import tariffs on American poultry of up to 105.4 percent(11). Another is, on August of 2010, Mexicos new controversy which includes meats, vegetables and household items face tariffs of 5 percent to 25 percent, which will hurt Texas more(12).Analysis on Element 6In brief, according to the webpage, the universe of discourse Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization which can provide a negotiating forum, offer a set of rules and helps to settle disputes for its memberships between nations. Its main function is to ensure that trade advert as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible(13).According to the publication of European Commission, on 8 December 2003, the EC requested consultations with India on 27 antidumping measures compel on a variety of EC exports, including pharmaceuticals, chemicals, paper, textile and steel. The problems in the Indian cases mainly referred to the highly insufficient injury and causality analysis, the failure to provide meaty disclosure documents and a continuous disregard of arguments presented by EC exporters and the EC. Following the consultations held in February 2004, India opened a review process which has led to the termination of to the highest degree of the contested measures, including those of most economic interest for EC exporters (steel and pharmaceutical products)(14).Analysis on Element 7The aims of EU are following Firstly, Eliminate customs duties and quotas between members. Secondly, establish common external tariff for non members (operated through common commercial policy). Thirdly, establish free movement of people, service, goods and capital between members, meanwh ile, reduce anti-competitive practices. Fourth, fit in with countries outside union to increase trade. Further, move towards full economic and monetary union. Lastly, develop common foreign, security and defense policy(15).In respect of trade, EU has back up to use one single currency which promotes the development of trade. Regarding to administration, the applying of Schengen Visa decrease administrative impediments and encourage the flow of individuals and business. Moreover, it implements unified foreign policy when confronted with trade disputes.Analysis on Element 8The Balance of Payments can effectively be broken down into two parts. According to the webpage, The Current Account records international trade in goods and service, international income flows and current transfers. The Capital Account and Financial Account form the counter part to this, recording the changing pattern in the international ownership of assets. While the Financial Account records changes in the cro ss-border flows of assets the international Investment Position measures the total stocks of foreign assets and liabilities held by a nation(16).The trade in goods proportion is the difference between the value of goods exported and the value of goods imported. The trade in services is recorded in the same way, with credits to the Current answer for reflecting services exports and debits services imports. Net income flows reflect international payments associated with the ownership of the factors of production (land, labor and capital). Current transfer records a miscellaneous set of net payments including workers remittances, social security, foreign upkeep and contributions to international organizations(17).In 2009, the current draw deficit stands at15.5 million. The deficit of trade in goods account falling to81.9 billion. The trade in services account has shown a surplus of 49.9 billion. The investment income balance rose to a record level of 32 billion. The deficit of tra nsfers account reached a record of 14.8 billion. Additionally, The capital account represented in 3.2 billion and financial account had a net inflow of 5.6 billion(18).Analysis on Element 9According to the bar map of trade in good and trade in services, the UK trade was fluctuated over the last 30 years. The UK trade has really only been in surplus in the very early 1980s which around 3 billion. However, after that, there has a apparent drop from 1982 to 1989 where at a bottom in electronegative 25 billion in 1989. Then, from 1990 to 1997, it roughly remained same which around 10 billion deficits. What is worse, the UK trade has a substantial decline which from 21 billion deficits in 1998 to 90 billion deficits in 2008 during the ten years. In 2009, the trade of good has a deficit around 81.9 billion(19).As for the trade in services, the UK has traditionally been in surplus and certainly has been so from 1976-1997. The services trade approximately remained surplus 4 billion during four years which from 1980 to 1984. Then, it peaked at 7 billion within 3 years which from 1985 to 1987 during the 1980s. From 1991 to 1997, it ascended gentlely from 4 to 11 billion deficit. However, there was a sharply growth after 2005 which from 25 billion positive to 56 billion positive in 2008. In 2009, it dropped to 49.9 billion trade in services.Analysis on Element 10According to the wikipedia, The exchange rates between two currencies specify how much currency is worth of a foreign nations in terms of the home nations currency(20). It has two forms which are fixed exchange rate and floating exchange rate.As to the floating exchange rate, according to the student guide, if the value of currency rises imported goods will be cheaper, therefore the trade in goods is likely to move into deficit. If the value of a currency falls, domestic goods and services will be dearer in domestic markets. This should mean an improvement in trade in goods(21). With regarding to the fixed exch ange rate, according to the student guide, a persistent surplus could be dealt with by measures which allow domestic consumers to feel confident to leverage more. If the domestic economy cannot respond then imports would probably increase and exports might become less competitive.(22) Therefore, it will lead to a decrease of trade in goods. If the opposite were the case, a persistent deficit then measures could be used to restrict domestic demand and also to place greater restrictions on imports.(23) Hence, an increase of trade in goods will be emerged with that.For example, it is suggested that the American government has a requirement of increasing the value of RMB (increasing the exchange rate of RMB to change dollar) in 2001. In the end of 2006, Chinese government put the policy to take the exchange rate, it means originally 100 US dollars exchange 826 RMB, now only swop about to 800 RMB. In this way, they can make use of less money to change more products of Chinese in order t o offset the quota of currency.Analysis on Element 11The single currency is usually a double edge sword, which both bring the UK government strengthens and weaknesses.AdvantagesTo the UK economy, keeps interest rates lower, the commitment to low inflation should allow the economies to operate lower cost.Increase foreign investment, if the UK join the single currency system, direct inward investment should be attracted because the reduction of uncertainly there is not the have to calculate demonstrate the UK pound(24).DisadvantagesFor the UK government, changes from old currency may be costly the government needs spend additional money, like, grease ones palms the new equipment and staff training.The UK government will lose the independent monetary policy, since when UK adopt the single currency, the scope for fiscal policy adjustments is restricted by need to stay within 3% of GDP(25).Analysis on Element 12To individuals, adopting the single currency could eliminate cost on excha nge currency. No matter Tourists or citizens, they do not need to care about more money will be spend because of changing exchange rate.Besides, it renders purchasers convenient and efficient shopping, most essentially, a wide range of selections of goods and considerations without additional expenditure.To the business, utilizing a single currency intensifies stiff competition among members within EU. By the contrast, it also provides corporations with increasingly opportunities and possibilities of expansion, so that these firms could produce their product to wider within EU. Whats more, it decreases the cost of foreign investment to dedicate domestically.Analysis on Element 13According to wikipedia, Least Developed artless (LDC) is the name given to a country which, according to the United Nations, exhibits the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings of all countries in the world. A country is classified as a Least Develope d Country if it meets three criteria* low-income (three-year average GNI per capita of less than US $905, which must exceed $1,086 to leave the list)* humans resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy) and* economic vulnerability (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by natural disasters)(26)For instance, Bhutan and Maldives in Asia is confronted with several problems which include shortage of education investment, out-dated medical treatment and high misadventure of employment.Analysis on Element 14NICs like Kiribati may face the problem of indebtedness. According to the student guide, As the living standards and per capital income of NICs approach those of the get along economies they will certainly find it difficult to sustain growth, they may well have benefited from aid from the World Bank or IMF. Were they clever enough to pay off all debts they might have owed externally or as close to it as they could before being exposed to some fairly tearing competition(27).In Cambodia, the unemployment is usually very high with very little industry because most people work on their own small plots of land. The social, cultural and sacred patters within these countries are barriers to mobility and change(28).Analysis on Element 15The impact of multi-national firms on NICs and LDCs may be broadly similar. The benefits have increase employment, the new methods and engine room and contribute to economic growth, to name just a few. At the same time the problems have which may eliminate domestic competition, occupy the local temper resources and the profits are mainly transfer back to Home County(29).Volkswagen as the first group company into Chinese marketing, they merger the Shanghai automobile firm an d established the Shanghai Volkswagen Company. The professional training designed for Chinese worker brought in the updated technology and management skills. The other instance is about Samsung Electronics. The organization set up their manufactory in developing countries like India, it may use up the natural resources and give extreme detrimental environmental influences on host country. abridgmentAll those are the 15 key elements about the world economy. At present, the global economy tends to integration, so to realize world economy is very inevitable for countries, businesses, and even individuals.Reference(1) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade(2) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Integration_Assosiation(3) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_advantage(4) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage(5) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectionism(6)http//www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/09/27/business/main6904479.shtml(7)http//domesticfuel.com/2010/04/06/brazil-eli minates-tariff-on-ethanol-imports/(8)http//www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/tariff-trade-barrier-basics.asp(9) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic print House Page34.(10) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-tariff_barriers_to_trade(11) http//www.nytimes.com/2010/09/27/business/global/27yuan.html(12) http//www.mysanantonio.com/business/local/article/Mexico-s-new-tariff-list-may-hurt-Texas-621156.php(13) http//www.wto.org/english/res_e/doload_e/inbr_e.pdf(14) http//trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2007/may/tradoc_134652.pdf(15) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic create House Page 66.(16) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_Payments(17) http//www.statistics.gov.uk/elmr/09_09/downloads/ELMR_Sep09_Chamberlin.pdf(18) United Kingdom Balance of Payments The Pink Book(19) United Kingdom Balance of Payment-The Pink Book(20) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate(21) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic make House Page 9 1and 92.(22) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic create House Page 103.(23) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic Publishing House Page 103.(24) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic Publishing House Page 112.(25) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic Publishing House Page 113.(26) http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_Developed_Country(27) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic Publishing House Page 134 and 135.(28) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic Publishing House Page 139.(29) Economics 2 The World Economy by China Mordern Economic Publishing House Page 148-149.

Role of Marriage in Society

Role of Marri be on in SocietyCulture is defined as the dynamic system of rules established by groups (Matsumoto Juang, p. 10). Marri succession is one of the norms established by people, which reflect mental attitude, beliefs and behaviors. Marriage is an interpersonal relationship with communal or phantasmal acknowledg manpowert which is often created as an agreement. Marriage is rooted effectually in almost every society except where common law partners argon recognized. It is the bond that exclusively consents a rideual relationship, curiously in collectivist countries where sex in front marriage is considered a sin, likewise some societies, especially collectivist countries in addition require official approval of religious or civil body. crossways cultures, the anatomies of ancestral standards are different. Beliefs of what comprises a family are based on culture, dynamics, assets, and ethics. In many cultures, extended family which includes married couples staying i n the home of their parents is a coordinate of demo love and respect for example in Pakistan marriage is also basis for having children in those societies. Since issues like fornication and having children bulge outside of marriage is considered taboo so to spring up a family in collectivist cultures acquire married is must(prenominal). Our attri justions, interpersonal and romantic relationships and group behaviors are all influenced by the culture we live in thereof resulting in the attitudes we ache towards a specific wreakions we take.Support gap, spirit and illness including marital satisfaction, chat pattern and attitudes towards marriage, they all differ across cultures and will be discussed. Attitude towards marriage being the most important one, because the whole idea of relationship relies on the singulars perspective and preferences. It depends on the individual to see it as a social foundation which administer structure, concomitant, growth and stability o r see it as an scotch arrangement or as a part of religious institution. The western society might pay practically importance to love whereas collectivist cultures might see as an obligatory and as a religious foundation to hold back family.Spousal Social SupportSocial support for women is greatly reduced in machismo cultures (Matsumoto Juang, p. 198). The conformity and obedience are expected by women and is related to conventional gender roles that egg-producing(prenominal)s and males have occupied with male traditionally being in power. Such differences result in loss of support especially in cultures where women tend to get married at a young age since get married at an early age is a form of economic survival it is also seen as a way to guard the female gender and to administer some adherence in settings where society is on a lower floor pressure for example India. The support a married couple gets from their significant partner is substantial, because support from ou tside the marriage does non compensate for the lack of e marriage support (Xu Burleson). Belle (1982) termed support gap hypothesis which is that women receive less(prenominal) support from their husband compared to men even though the study Belle did was in 1980 and it has been almost a decade, the study done by Xu and Burleson indicates that social change in sex role relations has not changed. The different kinds of support received are randy support, esteem support, network support, tangible support and informational support. Research indicates that men are less comfortable and less skilled in discussing distressed emotional farming (Burda Vaux 1987 Saurer Eisler, 1990 Trobst, Collins Embree, 1994). In Cross Cultural comparison of social support, Mortneson (1999) found that members of the American individualistic cultures viewed seeking of social support as much admit means of coping with problems than did members of the Chinese collectivist cultures. American individual ists also enumerated the provision of emotional support as more appropriate form of emotional support than did Chinese Collectivists.Study done by Xu and Burleson, included 100 native born Americans and 102 native born Chinese 45% of the exemplification were between 18-24 yrs of age and not exceeding 33 years. All participants were recently married i.e. not more than 5 years. The study tried to obtain desired and experienced levels of spousal support for the five types of social support (emotional, esteem, network, informational and tangible). Participants also responded to demographic dubiousnesss that provided information on age, sex, race, national origin, length of time they had known their spouse and the time they have been married. The results indicated a vast difference between Chinese support system vs. American support system Chinese men reported getting more esteem and network support from their spouse than Chinese women versus American women who experienced higher leve l of support from their spouse than did men. Sex differences were found amongst Chinese and American women, both face a support gap but Chinese women face an additional gap with respect to network support. The results provided Cross-cultural corroboration for the reality of support gaps, i.e. the less network support for Chinese wives that is because Chinese wives were reliant on their husbands for social contacts outside their home.Chinese also reported in getting more information support than did Americans, which could arise from Individualism-Collectivism a cultural factor. Americans view intimate relationship in terms of personal affect changes whereas Chinese in terms of connection with community. American men reported getting low level of spousal support than Chinese men that is because in traditional comfort system, wives have an obligation to support the egos and social connections of their husbands and husbands have lesser responsibility. Results indicate that marriage re mains more influenced by traditional values among Chinese men than Americans.Depression and Illness including Marital Satisfaction across CulturesIn collectivist societies, marriage is the central reality of a womans life and the blue print on which her life depends. Epidemiological studies confirm the special vulnerability of women, especially married women, in South Asia (Johnson Johnson, 2001). High rates of domestic violence (Jejeebhoy, 1998) female illiteracy, malnutrition, genus Anemia and maternal mortality are major public health problems (Buckshee, 1997). Psychiatric epidemiological studies consistently identify high rates of depression and other psychoneurotic illnesses in women and the gender ratio of these disorders on the subcontinent is higher than the gender ratio in the West (Mumford et al., 1996). Among married women in Pakistan, especially among newly married women, seek suicide (Khan Reza, 1998) and death rates from murder and suicide are higher than in are higher than in many other societies and are normally associated with in-law conflicts, especially dowry disputes (Kumar, 2004). Smaller scale studies of mental health and illness have found that a variety of disorders such as depression and post-partum depression were strongly associated with marital problems, particularly maltreatment by husband or in-laws (Patel et al., 2002 Ulrich, 1987). Women immigrants report higher rates of depression and dysphoria than Native American women (Karasz, 2005).A study of traditional South Asian immigrant women and white European American women found that European American women viewed depressive symptoms as the result of personality structures shaped by childhood experiences, or by patho-physiological processes such as serotonin deficiency or hormonal imbalance. South Asian women, by contrast, viewed depressive illness as a normal emotional reaction to severe situational stress, especially marital distress, and to the vulnerabilities associated w ith womens gender roles (Karasz, 2005). The present study by Karasz examines how women understand the link of marital family problems and a full(a) range of health problems by examining their conceptual patterns of the causal relationship between marriage roles, health and illness. Using qualitative methods and a model of illness representation from health psychology literature, 35 traditional South Asian immigrant women dungeon in New York City were interviewed. Results indicated that problems associated with marriage roles, including marital and marital family conflict, domestic process and isolation were viewed as extremely serious and were associated conceptually with a variety of health problems. In another study done by Qadir, De Silva, Prince and Khan, auditioned the pertinence of marital satisfaction scales developed in the West for use in Pakistan. The results indicate that, contrary to cultural beliefs regarding marriage, most women expressed the need to be quenched within marriage, which was found to be extremely low because of variety of reasons such as living in an extended family background and low spousal support. communion PatternsRehman and Munroe did a study and used cross-cultural methodology to examine the demand- adjourn pattern of marital communication. In Western countries, women make more demands, whereas men are more presumable to withdraw. This advanced marital structure hypothesis suggests that this pattern can be altered by gender roles and beliefs, particularly in traditional marriages (Rehman Munroe, 2006). To test such hypotheses, the authors conducted an observational study of marital communication across very different cultures, with varying levels of patriarchy (i.e., 50 White American couples, 52 Pakistani couples in Pakistan, and 48 immigrant Pakistani couples in America). A questionnaire was used to gather demographic information, such as age and education.The Short Marital Adjustment scrutiny (SMAT Locke Wallace, 1959) a standard measure of marital adjustment with well-established psychometric properties was the measure of marital satisfaction level. The Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS Straus, 1979) was used to screen out violent couples. Modified General Ethnicity Questionnaire (GEQ Tsai, Ying, Lee, 2000) only the immigrant couples completed this measure of acculturation to U.S. culture. Unable to find acculturation measures designed for The Desired Changes Questionnaire the DCQ was used to choose topics for to each one couple to discuss during their marital interactions. Twenty areas are listed (e.g., Get together with my friends).3 For each area, spouses rated how much they wanted their partner to change (1- no change 7- much more) they then listed at least two additional issues on which they wanted partner change and rank ordered their three most important issues. apiece couple was also asked to discuss for 7.5 minutes, which were later coded.Across cultures, demand-withdraw communicatio n was related to marital distress, extending previous findings to new groups. The results for demanding behaviors showed that Pakistani wives were significantly more likely to withdraw in unassertive demands than were American wives, whereas American wives were significantly more likely to use aggressive demands than were Pakistani wives. In addition, among Pakistani and immigrant couples, husbands were significantly more likely than were wives to use aggressive demands, whereas American wives were significantly more likely to use aggressive demands than were American husbands. There was a trend for American husbands to be more likely to withdraw than their wives. In contrast, in the Pakistani group, wives were significantly more likely to withdraw than were husbands. In addition, Pakistani and immigrant wives were significantly more likely to withdraw than were American wives, whereas American husbands were significantly more likely to withdraw than were Pakistani husbands. Pakist ani and immigrant wives showed increased withdrawal and made more unassertive demands, whereas Pakistani and immigrant husbands withdrew less and made more aggressive demands.Attitudes towards MarriageAttitude is one of the definitions in Jungs Chapter XI of Psychological Types. Jungs description of attitude is a readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way (Jung, 1921 1971par. 687). One of the types of attitudes Jung describes is, rational attitude, which is reason as an attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 785). Rational attitude is subdivided into thinking and feeling and irrational is subdivided into sensing and intuition. Attitude towards marriage involves, readiness to act in a certain way, whether you are capable of considering it rationally or irrationally. Why an individual chooses to get married? (voluntarily and involuntarily) differs across cultures. In collectivist cultures, it is seen as the only way of having family, fornication is not only considered a sin but also an individual can be severely punished which can lead to his/her death some countries also have laws protecting it for example Saudi Arabia.Higgins, Zheng, Liu and sunlight did a study to compare the attitude towards marriage amongst people living in China (collective culture) and United Kingdom (individualistic culture). The British sample consisted of 338 students and the Chinese sample consisted of 505 students. A questionnaire was devised by Chinese and English researchers working together. Respondent cultural differences in response style were noted (Higgins, Zheng, Liu Sun, 2002). According to Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988), people who belong to collectivist, group-oriented societies are more likely to value harmony, face-saving, modesty, and moderation and this may manifest itself in neutral answers to attitude scales. Respondents were asked for their opinion using a 5-point Likert scale. In this study, students were asked for their general attitude to sex before ma rriage. A total of 46.3% of Chinese men and 41.2% of Chinese women gave neutral answers, a higher percentage of Chinese female students (46.9%) were against sex before marriage than were Chinese male students (29.9%). The next statements concerned the connection between premarital sex and marriage. Most British students (85.2% men, 91.3% women) disagreed with A couple who have had versed intercourse before marriage ought to marry each other, whereas only a few Chinese (12.9% men, 11.4% women) disagreed.The belief that sex is designed for marriage is still hard held by many Chinese people and exerts a strong influence on their attitudes (Higgins, Zheng, Liu Sun, 2002). When asked intimately their willingness to marry a partner who had had sex with somebody else, over fractional of the British respondents (54.0% men, 50.6% women) did not seem to worry about their partners previous sexual experience whereas their Chinese counterparts (34.0% men, 36.5% women) appeared to be less a greeable to the idea. 87.1% male and female 94.3% students were against freedom to have lovers within marriage. This attitude was also prevalent among the Chinese sample, with 65.6% of men and 72.5% of women against extramarital lovers, this study showed that these male-superior norms still exist in the U.K. sample but are more prominent in the Chinese sample (Higgins, Zheng, Liu Sun, 2002). Culture exerts a strong influence on peoples attitudes to love, marriage, and sex. People from a more traditional society (e.g. China) have more consensus about the gender roles of men and women adhere more to traditional morality and values and are less open about sexual freedom (Higgins, Zheng, Liu Sun, 2002).Hojat, Shapurian, Shafeyhain and Parsi conducted a study amongst 160 Iranian immigrants in the US in 2000. The immigrants were between 20 -50 years of age, questionnaires were upsetn which included 25 questions regarding attitude towards marriage and relationship. Results showed that I ranian immigrant men were more likely than female partners to view premarital sex, marriage and family from a traditional point of view.Another raise study done by Wiesel and Krenawi consisted of 150 participants of different cultural backgrounds i.e. 29 were Druze, 32 were Muslims and 33 were Christians 44 were women and 50 were men with a mean age of 34. The questionnaires were designed to reveal attitudes toward love, the marriage expectation scale, potency scale, which will reveal the control of things, and mate weft scale which revealed how the person took initiative in getting married (love or arranged). Results indicated Muslims saw love as less important for marital quality than did Druze and Christians, Muslims more than other groups correlated independent decision make with marital quality, attitude toward love and marital quality were weakly correlated among Muslims, the necessity to beget off spring and unity between families were high amongst Muslims than other group s suggesting what might keep the families together in the absence of love. The results also suggested that arranged marriages are negatively associated with marital satisfaction and low level of marital satisfaction was related with low level of education.DiscussionThrough a variety of perceptions, one develops an exclusive analogue of what marriage is and the ancillary ideals concerning marriage. My mother always tell that successful marriage depends on two things finding the decline person and being the right person. Since I am a Muslim, I will give several quotations from Quran which I support as my belief and my idea of a perfect family and what a perfect husband and wife should be like. though I must admit with time, I have come to realize that to be perfect one must have to sacrifice a luck and since marriage is a two way street one has to give a lot in order to get anything. In Islam, marriage is treat as half-faith. When a servant of Allah marries, he has completed half of his religious obligations, and he must fear Allah in order to complete the second half (al-Baihaqi). Prophet Muhammad has also said, Marriage is part of my *Sunnah, whoever runs away from my path is not from among us. Husbands and wives are compared as garments to each other (al-Quran 2187) Marriage gives tranquility (al-Quran 3021) of mind in the spouses. Allah has prescribed marriage as the only way for conjugal relationship and family life in human society (al-Quran 2221, 55, 2433).With enough being said of the significance of marriage in Islam, its a shame to see that Muslim women face higher suicidal rate than men in Pakistan (Khan Reza, 1998). Most marriages in Pakistan are arranged by parents and other elders of family, with the woman having little or no say in the selection of her partner. Premarital meetings between couples are rare. Many couples meet each other for the first time on their wedding night. Newly married couples share the home plate with the grooms family , having little time or space of their own. Once married, a woman is under increasing pressure from her in-laws as well as her own family to have children as soon as possible, preferably in the first year. If for some reason the woman cannot have children, the threat of divorce or the husband taking on a second wife (allowed in Islam) is not uncommon. The divorce rate in Pakistan is quite low 0.3 per 1000 population (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1996, p. 686) but this does not reflect the true state of marriages. There is considerable stigma to divorce, especially for the woman. In addition, few women work outside their homes or have jobs that give them economic independence. Because most of the South Asian and Middle Eastern countries give high power to men, the spousal support is something that men living in these countries expect from women. macrocosm a housewife, taking care of kids and most of all thinking of women as inferior is something common amongst these men. Because the fa milies live together, there is not privacy, which gives rise to poor communication amongst married couples.My marriage was an arranged, it wasnt that my parents didnt ask me of my approval or if I didnt get a chance to talk to my husband, before getting married, that is something that a women in Islam has the right to do and people who are uneducated living in impoverished societies, deprive women of these right which gives rise to many social and marital problems. I must admit though, that living in an extended joined family, gave my husband and me little or no time for us, our life was going around in circles to which I always thought was no ending. But, being educated and having a liberal thinking we always made sure there was at least if not all, some privacy left, some matters that only me and my husband would discuss behind closed doors. While doing research for this paper, I sadly have to confess that women living in Asian or Middle eastern countries do suffer more, which did nt come to me as a surprise because Ive lived in Pakistan and have seen it all, but my question and concern was who will ever put a stop to all this nonsense?. Sadly, women is a victim in these countries but women are also who are perpetuating these hatred and violence in the household. A woman can take many forms, she can be a daughter, a mother in law, a sister in law, a wife, an aunt etc. most importantly she is the one who raises a child to be the kind of person she wants to see him as unfortunately in countries like Pakistan and India, it is the woman (mother in law) who forces their child to be stern and harsh to their wives, I think its because of the fact that they cant stand the exclusive attention of their sons or maybe they think keeping a women under control will only bring out the best for their sons. Who will ever think of these women who are ignored?

Active Vs Physiological Management of Third Stage of Labour

Active Vs Physiological direction of Third Stage of LabourActive versus physiological counseling of the deuce-ace point in time of push. accounting entryThis essay is primarily concerned with the arguments that ar currently prompt in relation to the benefits and disadvantages of having either an active or passive trey gear play of delve. We shall raise this issue from several angles including the currently accepted medical opinions as expressed in the peer reviewed press, the perspective of various opinions expressed by women in campaign and the rise base to support these opinions.It is a generally accepted truism that if at that place is controversy surrounding a subject, then this implies that in that location is non a sufficiently strong evidence base to settle the argument 1 way or the other. (De Martino B et al. 2006). In the case of this particular subject, this is possibly non true, as the evidence base is quite robust (and we shall examine this in payabl e course).Midwifery deals with situations that ar steeped in layers of strongly felt emotion, and this has a big endeavor to colour rational argument. Blind belief in one ara often appears to stem from total disbelief in another (Baines D. 2001) and in argueation of some of the publications in this area this would certainly appear to be true.Let us try to examine the basic facts of the arguments together with the evidence base that supports them.In the civilised world it is estimated that approximately 515,000 currently die annually from problems directly related to maternity. (extrapolated from Hill K et al. 2001). The largest single category of such(prenominal) deaths occur within 4 hrs. of spoken language, most comm and from post partum bleeding and its complications (AbouZahr C 1998), the most common factor in such cases being uterine atony. (Ripley D L 1999). Depending on the area of the world (as this tends to determine the standard of care and resources available), p ost partum haemorrhage deaths constitutes between 10-60% of all maternal deaths (AbouZahr C 1998). Statistically, the bulk of such maternal deaths occur in the developing countries where women whitethorn receive in take away, unskilled or inadequate care during push or the post partum period. (PATH 2001). In developed countries the vast majority of these deaths could be (and largely are) avoided with effective obstetric intervention. (WHO 1994). One of the central arguments that we shall deploy in favour of the active watchfulness of the trine head of tire out is the fact that relying on the identification of risk factors for women at risk of haemorrhage does not appear to decrease the overall figures for post partum haemorrhage morbidity or mortality as more than 70% of such cases of post partum haemorrhage occur in women with no identifiable risk factors. (Atkins S 1994).Prendiville, in his recently published Cochrane review (Prendiville W J et al. 2000) states thatwhere mat ernal mortality from haemorrhage is high, evidence-based practices that reduce haemorrhage incidence, such as active charge of the third item of labour, should always be followedIt is hard to rationally counter such an argument, particularly in view of the strength of the evidence base presented in the review, although we shall finish this essay with a discussion of a paper by Stevenson which attempts to provide a rational counter argument in this area.It could be argued that the management of the third stage of labour, as far as formal teaching and published literature is concerned, is eclipsed by the other two stages (Baskett T F 1999). Cunningham agrees with this standpoint with the observation that a current standard textbook of obstetrics (unnamed) devotes completely 4 of its 1,500 pages to the third stage of labour but a huge standard more to the complications that feces arise directly after the lurch of the baby (Cunningham, 2001). Donald makes the comment This indeed i s the unforgiving stage of labour, and in it there lurks more unexpected treachery than in both the other stages combined. The linguistic rule case lav, within a minute, become abnormal and successful deli truly outhouse turn fleetly to disaster. (Donald, 1979).chapter 1define third stage of labour,The definition of the third stage of labour varies between authorities in terms of wording, but in working(a) terms there is general agreement that it is the part of labour that starts directly after the birth of the baby and concludes with the successful delivery of the placenta and the foetal membranes.Functionally, it is during the third stage of labour that the myometrium contracts dramatically and causes the placenta to fr live up to from the uterine wall and then sequently expelled from the uterine cavity. This stage fag be managed actively or observed passively. Practically, it is the hurrying with which this stage is accomplished which efficaciously dictates the volume of downslope that is eventually lost. It follows that if anything interferes with this process then the risk of increased blood loss gets greater. If the womb becomes atonic, the placenta does not separate efficiently and the blood vessels that had formally supplied it are not actively constricted. (Chamberlain G et al. 1999). We shall discuss this process in greater detail shortly.Proponents of passive management of the third stage of labour rely on the normal physiological processes to shut down the bleeding from the placental situate and to expel the placenta. Those who favour active management use three elements of management. One is the use of an ecbolic drug effrontery in the minute after delivery of the baby and before the placenta is delivered. The second element is former(a) clamping and cutting of the cord and the third is the use of controlled cord grasp to facilitate the delivery of the placenta. We shall discuss each of these elements in greater detail in due cours e. The rationale behind active management of the third stage of labour is basically that by speeding up the natural delivery of the placenta, one can allow the uterus to contract more efficiently thereby trim the total blood loss and minimising the risk of post partum haemorrhage. (ODriscoll K 1994)discuss optimum practice,Let us start our consideration of optimal practice with a critical synopsis of the paper by Cherine (Cherine M et al. 2004) which takes a collective overview of the literature on the subject. The authors point to the fact that there have been a number of large scale randomised controlled studies which have compared the outcomes of labours which have been either actively or passively managed. One of the biggest difficulties that they experienced was the inconsistency of terminology on the subject, as a number of healthcare professionals had reported management as passive when there had been elements of active management such as controlled cord traction and early cord clamping.As an overview, they were able to conclude that actively managed women had a lower preponderance of post partum haemorrhage, a shorter third stage of labour, reduced post partum anaemia, less lead for blood transfusion or therapeutic oxytocics (Prendiville W J et al. 2001). former(a) factors derived from the paper include the observation that the administration of oxytocin before delivery of the placenta (rather than afterwards), was shown to decrease the overall incidence of post partum haemorrhage, the overall amount of blood loss, the need for additional uterotonic drugs, the need for blood transfusions when compared to deliveries with similar duration of the third stage of labour as a control. In addition to all of this they noted that there was no increased incidence of the condition of retained placenta. (Elbourne D R et al. 2001). The evidence base for these comments is both robust and strong. On the face of it, there seems so little to recommend the adoption of passive management of the third stage of labour.Earlier we noted the difficulties in definition of active management of the third stage of labour. In consideration of any individual paper where interpretation of the figures are required, great care must wherefore be taken in assessing on the nose what is being measured and compared. Cherine points to the fact that some respondents categorised their management as passive management of the third stage of labour when, in reality they had employ some aspect of active management. They may not have used ecbolic drugs (this was lay out to be the case in 19% of the deliveries considered). This point is worth considering progress as oxytocin was given to 98% of the 148 women in the trial who received ecbolic. In terms of optimum management 34% received the ecbolic at the appropriate time (as specified in the management protocols as being before the delivery of the placenta and within one minute of the delivery of the baby). For the stay 66%, it was given incorrectly, either after the delivery of the placenta or, in one case, later than one minute after the delivery of the baby.Further analysis of the practices reported that where uterotonic drugs were given, cord traction was not done in 49%, and early cord clamping not done in 7% of the deliveries observed where the optimum active management of the third stage of labour protocols were not followed.From an analytical point of view, we should cite the evidence base to bespeak the degree to which these two practices are associated with morbidity.Walter P et al. 1999 state that their analysis of their data shows that early cord clamping and controlled cord traction are shown to be associated with a shorter third stage and lower mean blood loss, whereas Mitchelle (G G et al. 2005) erect them to be associated with a lower incidence of retained placenta.Other considerations relating to the practice of early cord clamping are that it reduces the degree of gravel t o baby blood transfusion. It is puddle that giving uterotonic drugs without early clamping willing cause the myometrium to contract and physically squeeze the placenta, thereby accelerating the both the speed and the total quantity of the transfusion. This has the effect of upsetting the physiological balance of the blood volume between baby and placenta, and can cause a number of undesirable effects in the baby including an increased tendency to jaundice. (Rogers J et al. 1998)The major features that are commonly accepted as being characteristic of active management and passive management of the third stage of labour are set out below.Physiological Versus Active Management(After Smith J R et al. 1999)physiology of third stageThe physiology of the third stage can only be realistically considered in relation to some of the elements which occur in the preceding months of pregnancy. The first significant consideration are the changes in haemodynamics as the pregnancy progresses. The maternal blood volume increases by a factor of astir(predicate) 50% (from about 4 litres to about 6litres). (Abouzahr C 1998)This is due to a disproportionate increase in the plasma volume over the RBC volume which is seen clinically with a physiological fall in both Hb and Heamatocrit values. auxiliary iron can reduce this fall particularly if the woman concerned has poor iron reserves or was anaemic before the pregnancy began. The evolutionary physiology behind this change revolves virtually the fact that the placenta (or more accurately the utero-placental unit) has low resistance perfusion demands which are better served by a high circulating blood volume and it excessively provides a buffer for the inevitable blood loss that occurs at the time of delivery. (Dansereau J et al. 1999).The high progesterone levels encountered in pregnancy are to a fault relevant insofar as they tend to reduce the general vascular tone thereby increase venous pooling. This, in turn, reduces the venous result to the heart and this would (if not compensated for by the increased blood volume) lead to hypotension which would contribute to reductions in levels of foetal oxygenation. (Baskett T F 1999). Coincident and concurrent with these heamodynamic changes are a number of physiological changes in the coagulation system. on that point is seen to be a sharp increase in the quantity of most of the clotting factors in the blood and a government agencyal decrease in the fibrinolytic activity. (Carroli G et al. 2002). Platelet levels are observed to fall. This is thought to be due to a combination of factors. Haemodilution is one and a low level increase in platelet utilisation is also thought to be relevant. The overall functioning of the platelet system is rarely affected. All of these changes are mediated by the dramatic increase in the levels of circulating oestrogen. The relevance of these considerations is clear when we consider that one of the primary(prenominal) hazar ds facing the mother during the third stage of labour is that of haemorrhage. (Soltani H et al. 2005) and the changes in the haemodynamics are largely germinal to this fact.The other major factor in our considerations is the efficiency of the haemostasis produced by the uterine contraction in the third stage of labour. The prime federal agent in the immediate control of blood loss after separation of the placenta, is uterine contraction which can exert a physical pressure on the arterioles to reduce immediate blood loss. Clot formation and the resultant fibrin deposition, although they occur rapidly, only become functional after the coagulation cascade has triggered off and progressed. Once operative however, this secondary mechanism becomes dominant in securing haemostasis in the years following delivery. (Sleep, 1993).The uterus both grows and enlarges as pregnancy progresses under the primary influence of oestrogen. The organ itself changes from a non-gravid weight of about 70g and cavity volume of about 10 ml. to a fully gravid weight of about 1.1 kg. and a cavity capacity of about 5 litres. This growth, together with the subsequent growth of the feto-placental unit is fed by the increased blood volume and blood flow through the uterus which, at term, is estimated to be about 5-800 ml/min or approximately 10-15% of the total cardiac output(Thilaganathan B et al. 1993). It can therefore be appreciated why haemorrhage is a significant potential jeopardy in the third stage of labour with potentially 15% of the cardiac output being directed towards a raw placental line.The physiology of the third stage of labour also involves the mechanism of placental expulsion. After the baby has been delivered, the uterus continues to contract rhythmically and this reduction in size causes a shear cable television service to form at the utero-placental junction. This is thought to be mainly a physical phenomenon as the uterus is capable of contraction, whereas the plac enta (being devoid of muscular tissue) is not. We should note the characteristic of the myometrium which is quaint in the animal kingdom, and this is the ability of the myometrial fibres to maintain its shortened length after each contraction and then to be able to contract further with subsequent contractions. This characteristic results in a progressive and (normally) fairy rapid reduction in the overall surface area of the placental site. (Sanborn B M et al. 1998)In the words of Rogers (J et al. 1998), by this mechanism the placenta is undermined, detached, and propelled into the lower uterine segment.Other physiological mechanisms also come into play in this stage of labour. Placental separation also occurs by virtue of the physical separation engendered by the formation of a sub-placental haematoma. This is brought about by the dual mechanisms of venous occlusion and vascular rupture of the arterioles and capillaries in the placental bed and is secondary to the uterine contrac tions (Sharma J B et al. 2005). The physiology of the normal control of this phenomenon is both unique and complex. The structure of the uterine side of the placental bed is a latticework of arterioles that spiral around and inbetween the meshwork of interlacing and interlocking myometrial fibrils. As the myometrial fibres increasingly shorten, they effectively actively constrict the arterioles by kinking them . Baskett (T F 1999) refers to this action and structure as the living ligatures and physiologic sutures of the uterus.These dramatic effects are triggered and mediated by a number of mechanisms. The actual definitive trigger for labour is still a matter of active debate, but we can observe that the myometrium becomes significantly more sensitive to oxytocin towards the end of the pregnancy and the amounts of oxytocin produced by the posterior pituitary glad increase dramatically just before the onset of labour. (Glmezoglu A M et al. 2001)It is known that the F-series, and som e other) prostaglandins are equally active and may have a role to play in the genesis of labour. (Gulmezoglu A M et al. 2004)From an interventional point of view, we note that a number of synthetic ergot alkaloids are also capable of causing sustained uterine contractions. (Elbourne D R et al. 2002)chapter 2 discuss active management, criteria, implications for mother and fetus.This essay is asking us to consider the essential differences between active management and passive management of the third stage of labour. In this segment we shall discuss the principles of active management and assembly line them with the principles of passive management.Those clinicians who practice the passive management of the third stage of labour put forward arguments that mothers have been giving birth without the assistance of the trained healthcare professionals for millennia and, to a degree, the human body is the product of evolutionary forces which have focussed upon the perpetuation of the spe cies as their prime driving force. Whilst accepting that both of these concepts are obviously true, such arguments do not take account of the natural wastage that drives such evolutionary adaptations. In human terms such natural wastage is simply not ethically or morally acceptable in modern society. (Sugarman J et al. 2001)There may be some validity in the arguments that natural processes will achieve normal separation and delivery of the placenta and may lead to fewer complications and if the patient should suffer from post partum haemorrhage then there are techniques, medications and equipment that can be utilised to contain and control the clinical situation. Additional arguments are invoked that controlled cord traction can increase the risk of uterine inversion and ecbolic drugs can increase the risks of other complications such as retained placenta and difficulties in delivering an undiagnosed twin. (El-Refaey H et al. 2003)The proponents of active management counter these a rguments by suggesting that the use of ecbolic agents reduces the risks of post partum haemorrhage, fleet separation of the placenta, reduction of maternal blood loss. Inversion of the uterus can be avoided by using only gentle controlled cord traction when the uterus is well contracted together with the controlling of the uterus by the Brandt-Andrews manoeuvre.The arguments relating to the undiagnosed second twin are loosing ground as this eventuality is becoming progressively more rare. The advent of ultrasound together with the advent of protocols which call for the mandatory examination of the uterus after the birth and before the administration of the ecbolic agent effectively minimise this possibility. (Prendiville, 2002).If we consider the works of Prendiville (referred to above) we note the meta-analyses done of the various trials on the comparison of active management against the passive management of the third stage of labour and find that active management consistently l eads to several benefits when compared to passive management. The most significant of which are set out below.Benefits of Active Management Versus Physiological Management*95% confidence interval Number needed to treat(After Prendiville, 2002).The statistics obtained make interesting consideration. In these figures we can deduce that for every 12 patients receiving active management (rather than passive management) one post partum haemorrhage is avoided and further extrapolation suggests that for every 67 patients managed actively one blood transfusion is avoided.With regard to the assertions relating to problems with a retained placenta, there was no evidence to support it, indeed the figures showed that there was no increase in the incidence of retained placenta. Equally it was noted that the third stage of labour was significantly shorter in the actively managed group.In terms of significance for the mother there were negative findings in relation to active management and these i ncluded a higher incidence of raised blood pressure post delivery (the criteria used being 100 mm Hg). Higher incidences of reported nausea and barf were also found although these were apparently related to the use of ergot ecbolic and not with oxytocin. This is possibly a reflection of the fact that ergot acts on all polish up muscle (including the gut) whereas the oxytocin derivatives act only on uterine muscle. (Dansereau, 1999).None of the trials included in the meta-analysis reported and incidence of either uterine inversions or undiagnosed second twins. Critical analysis of these findings would have to consider that one would have to envisage truly enormous study cohorts in order to obtain statistical significance with these very rare events. (Concato, J et al. 2000)With specific regard to the mother and baby we note some authors recommend the use of early suckling as nipple stimulation is thought to increase uterine contractions and thereby reduce the likelihood of post pa rtum haemorrhage. Studies have shown that this does not appear to be the case (Bullough, 1989), although the authors suggest that it should still be recommended as it promotes both bonding and breastfeeding.The most important element of active management of the third stage of labour is the administration of an ecbolic agent directly after the delivery of the anterior shoulder or within a minute of the complete delivery of the baby. The significance of the anterior shoulder delivery is that if the ecbolic is given prior to delivery of the anterior shoulder then there is a significantly increased risk of shoulder dystocia which, with a strongly espial uterus, can be technically very difficult to reduce and will have significant detrimental effects on the baby by reducing its oxygen supply from the placenta still further. The fundal height should be assessed immediately after delivery to exclude the possibility of an undiagnosed second twin. (Sandler L C et al. 2000)There are a number of different (but widely accepted) protocols for ecbolic administration. Commonly, 10 IU of oxytocin is given intramuscularly or occasionally a 5 IU IV bolus. ergot compounds should be avoided in patients who have raised blood pressure, migraine and Raynauds phenomenon. (Pierre, 1992).The issue of early clamping of the cord is complex and, of the three components of the active management of the third stage of labour this, arguably, gives rise to the least demonstrable benefits in terms of the evidence base in the literature.We have already discussed the increased incidence of postpartum jaundice in the newborn infant if cord clamping is delayed but this has to be offset against both the occasional need for the invoking of prompt resuscitation measures (i.e. cord around the neck) or the reduction in the incidence of childhood anaemia and higher iron stores (Gupta, 2002). In a very recent paper, Mercer also points to the lower evaluate of neonatal intraventricular haemorrhage althou gh it has to be said that the evidence base is less secure in this area. (Mercer J S et al. 2006)Other foetal issues are seldom encountered in this regard except for the comparatively rare occurrence when some form of dystocia occurs and the infant had to be manipulated and represented (viz. the Zavanelli procedure). If the cord has already been divided up then this effectively deprives the infant of any possibility of placental support while the manoeuvre is being carried out with consequences that clearly could be fatal. (Thornton J G et al. 1999)In the recent past, the emergence of the practice of harvesting foetal stem cells from the cord blood may also have an influence on the measure of the clamping but this should not interfere with issues relating to the clinical management of the third stage. (Lavender T et al. 2006)There are some references in the literature to the practice of allowing the placenta to exsanguinate after clamping of the distal portion as some authorities suggest that this may aid in both separation (Soltani H et al. 2005) and delivery (Sharma J P et al. 2005). of the placenta. It has to be noted that such references are limited in their value to the evidence base and perhaps it would be wiser to consider this point unproven.We have searched the literature for trials that consider the effect of controlled cord traction without the administration of embolic drugs. The only published trial on the issue suggested that controlled cord traction, when used alone to deliver the placenta, had no positive effect on the incidence of post partum haemorrhage (Jackson, 2001). The same author also considered the results of the administration of ecbolic agents directly after placental delivery and found that the results (in terms of post partum haemorrhage at least), were similar to those obtained with ecbolics given with the anterior shoulder delivery, although an earlier trial (Zamora, 1999) showed that active management (as above) did result in a statistically significant reduction in the incidence of post partum haemorrhage when compared to controlled cord traction and ecbolics at the time of placental delivery.In this segment we should also consider the situation where the atonic uterus (in passive management of the third stage of labour) can result in the placenta becoming detached but remaining at the level of the internal os. This can be clinically manifest by a lengthening of the cord but no subsequent delivery of the placenta. In these circumstances the placental site can continue to bleed and the uterus can fill with blood, which distends the uterus and thereby increases the tendency for the placental site to bleed further. This clearly has very significant implications for the mother. (Neilson J et al. 2003)There are other issues which impact on the foetal and maternal wellbeing in this stage of the delivery but these are generally not a feature issues relating to the active or passive management of the third stag e of labour and therefore will not be considered further.There are a number of other factors which can influence the progress of the third stage of labour and these can be iatrogenic. Concurrent administration of some drugs can affect the physiology of the body in such a way as to change the way it responds to normal physiological processes. On a first principles basis, one could suggest that, from what we have already discussed, any agent that causes relaxation of the myometrium or a reduction in uterine tone could potentially interfere with the efficient contraction of the uterine musculature in the third stage and thereby potentially increase the incidence of post partum haemorrhage.Beta-agonists (the sympathomimetic group) work by relaxing smooth muscle via the beta-2 pathway. The commonest of these is salbutamol. When given in its usual form of an inhaler for asthma, the blood levels are very small indeed and therefore scarcely clinically significant but higher doses may well e xert a negative effect in this respect. (Steer P et al. 1999)The NSAIA group have two potential modes of action that can interfere with the third stage. Firstly they have an action on the platelet function and can impair the clotting process which potentially could interfere with the bodys ability to achieve haemostasis after placental delivery. (Li D-K et al. 2003)Secondly their main mode of therapeutic action is via the prostaglandin pathway (inhibitory action) and, as such they are often used for the treatment of both uterine cramping, dysmenorrhoea and post delivery afterpains. (Nielsen G L et al. 2001)They achieve their effect by reducing the ability of the myometrium to contract and, as such, clearly are contraindicated when strong uterine contractions are required, both in the immediate post partum period and if any degree of post partum haemorrhage has occurred.Other commonly used medications can also interfere with the ability of the myometrium to contract. The atomic numb er 20 antagonist group (e.g. nifedipine) are able to do this (Pittrof R et al. 1996) and therefore are changed for an alternative medication if their cardiovascular effects need to be maintained. (Khan R K et al. 1998)We should also note that some anaesthetic agents can inhibit myometrium contractility. Although they are usually of rapid onset of action, and therefore rapid elimination from the body, they may still be clinically significant if given at the time of childbirth for some form of operative vaginal delivery. (Glmezoglu A et al. 2003)relevant levelheaded and ethical issues related to topic and midwife,Many of the legal and ethical issues in this area revolve around issues of consent, which we shall discuss in detail shortly, and competency.Professional competence is an area which is difficult to define and is evolving as the status of the midwife, together with the technical expectations expected of her, increase with the advance of technology.

Is Rawlss Critique Of Utilitarianism Fair Philosophy Essay

Is Rawlss Critique Of Utilitarianism Fair Philosophy EssayThe question we atomic number 18 going to deal with immediately draw my attention as Rawls work on respectableness non only turns out to be theoretic wholey applicable, but even bankrupticular get hold ofing the time it was published, it results world determinant from a historic detail of view. thus A theory of verticalice was written in 1971, in these years as we agnise cold war reached its climax and contrast amongst the Soviet Union and the United States was severe. These conflicts implied non only a political (and fortunately not military) conflict, but at its deepest layer a difference in ideology, beliefs, g-forceght.As come up known the soviet model had its roots in Karl Marxs (1818-1883) communist philosophy while the western countries found their attachment mostly in usefulism. These philosophies oppose in its assumptions and appear not to be compatible witch each otherwise. What Rawls proposes us is an innovating solution to conjugate accessible justice and utilitarianism in an innovating if not revolutionary theory of justice. He is considered to be the father of the third track among a centralized economy and laissez-faire.As previously anticipated the theory of justice also has a fundamental theoretical value as it marks the turning point in some very important and discussed conceptual differences which became part of nowadays political agenda.Rawls famous theory of justice criticized utilitarianism at its roots. After a brief introduction well-nigh the topic of discussion, my attention is going to focusing on the prefatory thinkings of utilitarianism as it is the philosophical theory which opposes most to Rawls theory of justice.We volition then analyze Rawls attack to utilitarian philosophy as explained in his book A theory of justice. Furthermore we will place our attention on the reasons why Rawlss judges utilitarianism wrong, and on other arguments once morest it. derriere Rawlss thoughtJohn Rawls is widely considered maven of the most innovative and influential thinker of the twentieth century. Put in Amartya Sens wordsBy far the most influential and I believe the most important theory of justice to be presented in this century has been John Rawls Justice as fairness (Sen, 1992p. 75)He was innate(p) in 1921 in the city of Baltimore, made his studies in Princeton and Oxford, before becoming a professor in unrivalled of the most known universities of the United States Harvard. He is mostly known through his famous book A theory of justice (1971).The philosopher claims that justice is the offset requisite of social institutions, just in the same way as the pursuit of truth is the final aim of all philosophy. His basic claim is that as a theory a needs to be discarded or at least changed in its missing parts if it is not true, in the same way institutions or laws take a leak to be abolished or reformed if they are not fair.He goes on sa ying that even if society as a whole force profit from certain institution, they cannot be accepted and left in place if even only whiz(a) somebody gets an unfair treatment as a consequence of their operation. separately person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others. It does not allow that the give ups imposed on a few are outweighed by the large sum of avails enjoyed by many.( Rawls, John A Theory of Justice(Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 1971, p 3.)As he defined his idea about justice, he treasured to saltation a discerning foundation to it. He wanted to ensure that his justice assumptions were reasonable and shared by all members of society. Given the circumstance that mortals are different and consent different aims in life it is necessary to visit some principle which cou ld be agreed on by all members.The way by which people could find a popular agreement is very well known in philosophy and social sciences as commonplace law. What is being referred to is the idea of original position and veil of ignorance. Part of its great success is due to the fascinating representation ceden by the author.He imagines a so called original position in which the single one-on-ones decide the rules which will govern society. What is crucial is the fact that they do this choice in absolute ignorance concerning some relevant information of their future lives in society. The agreement is so being made in a condition of a veil of ignorance. This avoids the fact that some which might be born in a very rich family would obviously be against high income taxes to transfer some wealth to the worse off. The poor one on the other pile would definitely welcome such taxes as they could profit from them. The people making the choice are thus presented as rational and not i nterested in others. No one could get an advantage from the choice of certain principles which would advantage a certain category, as they would not know which role they are going to withdraw in society.To sum up we can say that the veil of ignorance has to exclude people from the knowledge of facts which would bring them to have conflicts. Al the parties are equal in this position, indeed everyone would have the same rights in proposing rules and accepting them. The outcome of this decision antedates to a fair agreement because it is conducted in fair conditions. This is the reason why this theory is known as justice as fairness.He states that the philosopher which contributed most to the development of his theory has been Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), since Kants ethic is based on the individualized choice of free, rational and equal individuals. Therefore he arrives to claim that the principles of justice are to be seen as categorical imperatives in the Kantian way. Indeed by cat egorical imperative Kant means these moral principles which are to be rationally respected and accepted from a free and rational individual. Opposed to these we find hypothetical imperatives which are the ones which aim at certain specific goals.Concerning the principles which have to be expected from the decision take under the veil of ignorance, we should not consider them as defined principles for actions but as general guide lines for practical political decisions.It is to be noticed that some critics might show up at this point, authors exchangeable Sen criticized the fact that exactly these principles would emerge from the contracting under the veil of ignorance The outcome might be a different one.The first principle states the followingEach person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. (Rawls, 1971)What is exactly meant as basic liberties has to be defined more on the button, indeed they area) The active and passive right to vote the first refers to the possibility to choose a political worker according to our preferences (what is commonly understood as right to vote). The second one (passive right to vote) refers to the fact that we have the possibility to candidate for elections and possibility be elected.b) autonomy of conscience, which is basically the faculty to choose or decide by your own, your future life, your way of being and your own destiny.c) emancipation of speech and company, so the possibility to demo your own ideas and make them public even if they do not fit and are not coherent with the current political situation and its majoritys ideas. The freedom of assembly indeed refers to the possibility to arrange political assemblies to discuss political and practical issues.d) Freedom to personal propriety, which is to be understood as the possibility to have the personal private propriety on your goods (although he states that the private propriety of means of pro duction is not necessarily to be seen as a primary good).e) Freedom from arbitrary arrest, which means the fact that the public power has not the freedom to arbitrary (so without a reason), arrest individuals because they might oppose or disagree with the public power itself.The second principle Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that(a) They are to be of the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society, consistent with the just savings principle (the difference principle).(b) Offices and positions must be open to everyone under conditions offair equality of opportunity(Rawls, 1971, p.302)The first part of the second principle (a) holds the idea that the first goal in a choice should be to maximise the least well off rather than to maximize in general. (Maximin) This means that arrangements which have in mind inequalities might only be accepted if they increase the position of the poorest too. It is well explained by this graphical representation CDocuments and SettingsRoberta SimeoneDesktoprawls function.jpgThis graph is to be interpreted as if there were two individuals giving freedom to our imagination let us call them 1 and 2.The social service of both is to be heedful on the 45 degree line in the point of interception with the L curve. A few of them are marked in increasing service program order to give a general idea, IAlready this argument (Maximin) proves the effectiveness of Rawls critique to utilitarianism because it gives attention to the distribution of wealth rather than considering merely the sum of all the agents utilities. This will be clear in the paragraph about utilitarianism.The justification for this argument is due to the fact that the randomness of the condition in which one is born is not linked to a moral entitlement. For instance the financial conditions of ones family or even the talents one has are merely casual. That is why it is right to increase first the worse off who had been unlucky in th e lottery of life.UtilitarianismUtilitarianism was mainly born by Jeremy Benthams (1748-1832) work. His biggest innovation compared to previous thinkers was to found moral philosophy on a rational basis. This reflects the theoretical innovations of his time, which is the scientific method brought by enlightenment. He therefore tried to make ethics an analytical science which can be proven by logical and mathematical principles.This philosophy is founded on the basic idea that actions should only be judged from the value of its outcome. The key point if we assume this way of thinking, becomes to define precisely how we might value the effects of our actions. We could try to value different things which we generally assumed as good, such as happiness, satisfaction, wealth or even impartial pleasure.Not giving any value judgment about this methodology to chose the right action, it is already possible to note that this part is particularly problematic as all these things turn out to b e extremely difficult (if not impossible) to measure. The general principle is the so called utility, according to utilitarian philosophers it can be measured by calculation and thus it allows us to compare between actions leading to higher and lower utility outcomes. Bentham believes it is possible to possible to calculate pain and pleasure by using equations, this should be the way to define utility according to the duration and the strength of a feeling (positive or negative). Founding this principle of utility is a general assumption believed to be true by utilitarianism, it is the fact that any activity leads to two basic feelings, which are pleasure and its opposite pain. fancy about how to act should only be left to these two.In Benthams words that property in any object, whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happinessorto prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness(Jeremy Bentham Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Leg islation,1789).As we saw in this paragraph this basic understanding of utilitarianism does not allow us to go beyond a personal, individualistic judgment. How should indeed societys utility be considered? The definition of utility states that it should be considered compared to the part whose interest is concerned. If we consider society as the interested society which might be societys interest? In this philosophy social utility is simple the sum of all individuals utilities.(As we saw, Rawls position criticizes exactly this simplicity by which utilitarianism simplifies individuals and the general social utility. Which effectively is a fair argument against it).An individualistic approach by which each person maximizes its own utility does not appear to be compatible with collective utility. The way utilitarian philosophers think that it is possible to enforce public interest is trough legislation as a tool, the law should define the principles society wants to respect and the act ions which maximize social utility. A well planned legislation will lead to harmonize individual interest to social one by making obedience to laws more convenient than breaking it. This means that the expected utility of committing an action against the law should be lower than the possible advantage to commit a crime. Indeed Bentham tried to find a way to define particularly the penal code, in this way anyone would know the punishment employ for breaking the law which would be leading to a lower utility than respecting it.To give another graphical representation to be compared to the Rawlsian one we can have a look at the following graphCDocuments and SettingsRoberta SimeoneDesktopUtilitut.jpgAgain we have our 1 and 2 (individuals) determining social utility, the parallel lines have again a slope of 45 degrees this time turned through 90 degrees. The social utility is on the interception where the two individual ones cross. We can note the fact that even if one has all and the o ther any (interception between x axis u1 and W1) we still stay on the same social utility W1. full of life points in utilitarianismUtilitarianism was all but left without critics, already Benthams successor John Stuart Mills (1806-1873) who was the second innovator in utilitarianism started to criticize different approaches and assumption use by Bentham. Indeed Benthams approach used to be focused on the theory by which the public actor should act. Mills on the other hand was focusing more on the personal morality of actions. Compared to Bentham he assumes an approach which is more internal, he tries to focus on the psychology of the agent. Here we find the first critic to utilitarianism Mills believes utility maximization assumption to be too narrow to explain agents choices.An interesting critique is the one moved by Bernard Williams (1929-2003) it is well explained by an anecdote by Williams himself known as Jim and the IndiansJim finds himself in the central square of a small South American town. Tied up against the groyne are twenty Indians, in front of several armed men in uniform. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and () explains that the Indians are a random group of inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protesters of the advantage of not protesting. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the prisoners himself. If Jim accepts, then as a spare mark of the occasion the other Indians will be let off. Of course, if Jim refuses, there will be no special occasion, and the captain will do what he was about to and kill them all. () The men are against the wall and the other villagers understand the situation and are obviously beggary him to accept. What should he do?(B. Williams, A Critique of Utilitarianism in Smart Williams, Utilit arianism For and Against, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1973)Since utilitarianism only considers the utility of the outcome of an action there is no choice. It is much better in terms of general utility to kill only one person rather than having 19 others been killed. This would simply be better because utilitarianism considers that each one counts for one and only one. What Williams argues is different that it is not the same consequence if a person is killed by my direct action or if he is killed because of my indirect behavior, which in this font would be an act of not taking participation. Killing actively one person would not preserve our personal moral integrity because indeed we would have killed a human being. This would harm our own personal moral integrity even though it might be a better outcome in terms of social utility. That is the reason why this objection is known as the integrity objection.Rawls critiqueRawls position is deeply against utilitarianism, as t his philosophy is accepting to give up individual interests for majoritys ones. The utilitarian assumption that individual interest might be given up for society, is criticized even if the sacrifice of someones interest might lead to greater efficiency. For Rawls it is more important to ensure justice before efficiency. It is claimed to be wrong if the majority would get an advantage but the one who has to take the sacrifice is the worst of, and this is unjust.Accordingly, in a just society we have to assume equal citizen rights, which again according to him are an absolute right under any circumstance. The only admissible injustice would be the one which would prevent a worse injustice.The first critical point of utilitarianism he identifies is the fact that it tends to make the individual disappear. Utilitarianism has a very narrowed view of human beings only considering its utility, to the point that once the individual utility is calculated there is no other relevant information concerning the person. This kind of reduction leads utilitarianism to be a philosophy which is indifferent to identity and individuality of people.Further, another critical point is the one concerning distributive justice, utilitarianism tries to maximize the social outcome as a whole, what it still fails to take into account is the distribution of that utility.(As explained by the second graph). If we abstract and consider wealth as utility it does not make a difference it one individual has a lot and most others only a little the general sum of all the utilities is still maximized. Between two actions, one leading to a utility of six for the first individual and an utility of one for the second, and another leading to ternary for each ,utilitarianism would choose the first because seven is greater than six. This is because all what matters is the sum of utility, although this leads to profound injustice.Finally he claims that each desire is to be calculated and compared to other desires although they might differ in their nature, what is to be understood as a qualitative versus quantitative difference.ConclusionWhat Rawls criticized in utilitarianism appears to be right for general principles of social welfare. Utilitarianism has to be awarded with the innovation to apply rationality to moral philosophy. Although it forgets the distribution of wealth problem.This latter one appears to be the most effective critique to utilitarianism. It is undeniable that the utilitarian view of each individual maximizing its own utility as he best believes also implies a higher grade of freedom of choice. This choices should thou be made in a way which is not interfering with social purposes. An action should not only be valued from the utility it brings to the single individual but society as a whole. Because in the end even the single individual is staying in society and thou being influenced from the military position quo he stays in. Social welfare is not only profi ting the ones who directly gain from it but the whole systems stability. Injustices are the seed of contrasts, the French aristocrats living the French Revolution might agree with this view.Not only is the critique effective but also fair on a moral basis. Society should not be led by individualistic principles, such an assumption would mean to put social morality on the same layer as individual one. But societies emerged from collaboration between individuals to achieve something more. This is the reason why the state should try to be better than individuals particularly concerning morality.On the other had it has to be tell that utilitarianism has the great advantage of being practical and effective to apply. The use of calculation implies an incredible advantage in terms of efficiency in decision-making.Further it is not clear why the two principles of justice should necessarily emerge from the original position, this is basically the critique moved to Rawls by many, among them Amartya Sen. The idea is that other principles might emerge from the choice made under the veil of ignorance.